INNOVATIONS IN TEACHING

Micro-Teaching:

          An idea of training teachers with the help of technique of microteaching was developed in Stanford University, USA in 1963 by D.W. Allen and his co-workers and is now followed in many countries with modified and improved techniques. Micro-teaching is considered not only constructive teachers training but also a “versatile research tool which dramatically simplifies the logistics of investigating certain teaching skills and learning variables”. In order to find out the effectiveness of this technique in the Indian context, an experiment was undertaken in the academic year 1973-74 to compare the technique of microteaching and the traditional method.

          By micro-teaching teachers are taught teaching skills in such a manner that the application of these skills in teaching not only becomes the habit of the teacher but it also becomes the part of his character. In short, microteaching is a special technique to bring about a desirable change in the behaviour of the pupil teacher. In micro-teaching technique the complex act of teaching is broken down into simple components making the task more manageable. Only one particular skill is attempted and developed during micro-teaching session. How to teach is considered more important than what to teach. Microteaching is organised practice teaching where the experimental teacher teaches a small group of audience (real students/peers) which is recorded for review after each teaching section. The lesson is scaled down to reduce some of the complexities of teaching act with a view to enabling the teacher to focus on a selected skill of teaching. Here teacher find out what has worked, which aspects have fallen short, and what needs to be done to enhance their teaching techniques. Thus, when a student teacher is being trained through the technique of microteaching, he does not have to face the problems of classroom teaching arising out of:

1.              Lack of mastery over the content and hence no confidence in one’s self;

2.              Lack of knowledge of educational psychology;

3.              Lack of rapport between the teacher and the students.

This fact enables the teacher to concentrate on one skill of teaching at a time.

          In microteaching a pupil teacher teaches a single unit of lesson for five to ten minutes to a small group of students compressed of 5-10 students and manifests only one teaching skill repeatedly during his teaching. When a student teacher gives a lesson through the technique of microteaching, the supervisor evaluates his lesson, concentrating on one skill qualitatively and precisely, and makes the student teacher conscious of the merits and demerits of the work. After the teaching is over, teacher trainees tell the pupil teacher at which point did he commit mistakes, how many times and to what extent of accuracy and effectiveness he used a particular skill and how can he improve his teaching by t;he effective use of skill. The supervisor may give the feedback to the student teacher with the help of video or audio tape recordings. The peer group may also provide feedback to their co-students. The student teacher revises his plan after teaching session, and re-teaches in order to have more practice in the same skill. The supervisor gives the feedback after the re-teaching session also. This procedure is continued till the student teacher achieves the sufficient mastery in the skill.  

Definitions of Micro-teaching

          Various research workers and writers have defined “Micro-teaching” in number of ways. Let us reproduce here a few important definitions:

Ø   D.W. Allen (1966): “Micro-teaching is a system of controlled practices that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behaviour and to practice teaching under controlled conditions”.

Ø   Clift (1976): “Micro-teaching is teacher training procedure which reduces the teaching situation to simpler and more controlled encounter achieved by limiting the practice teaching to a specific skill and reducing teaching time and class size”

Ø   Mc Allease and Unwin (1970): “The term micro-teaching is most often applied to the use of closed circuit television to give immediate feedback to trainee-teachers performance in a simplified environment”.

Ø   B.K. Passi and M.S. Lalita (1976): “Micro-teaching is a teaching technique which requires student teachers to teach a single concept using specified teaching skill to a small number of pupils in short duration of time”.

 

 

Characteristics of Micro-Teaching   

          The above definitions lead us to derive the following conclusions about the nature and characteristics of Micro-teaching technique:

·                Micro-teaching is training –technique and not a teaching technique. It is a technique that is used for the training of teachers to make them learn the art of teaching. It is not a method of classroom instruction.

·                Micro-teaching provides teachers with a practice for teaching in which the normal complexities of real teaching are reduced in terms of

i)               Length of the lesson ( a simple and single  concept is choosen)

ii)             Number of students (usually 5-7, preferably peers)

iii)           Class time (usually 5 or 7 minutes)

iv)           Single skill at a time

·                Video tape facility is also provided in order to give proper feedback to the pupil teacher. With the help of video-taping, the pupil-teacher can observe his activities himself and after receiving criticism from his classmates and his teacher trainer, he can modify his behaviour.

·                A micro-teaching laboratory appears to possess all the inherent features of the real classroom. The trainees are provided many opportunities to study the desired patterns of behaviour through a tape or film of teaching models or a demonstration given by the supervisor. Using these models as guides, the trainees well develop their own style.

·                Teaching is composed of very specific skills. These skills can be mastered through the traditional approach to teacher training. Micro-teaching provides opportunity to select one skill at a time and practices through its sealed down encounter and then take others in a similar way.

Phases of Microteaching:

          According to J.C. Clift, the elements which normally got to make up the micro-teaching procedure may be grouped under three phases:

v   Knowledge acquisition phase: it includes observing the demonstration of the skill and analysis and discussion of the demonstration.

v     Skill acquisition phase- this phase includes preparing the micro lesson involving the skill and practising the skill while teaching.

v   Transfer phase- in this phase, the skill is transferred to actual teaching situation.

In the Knowledge Acquisition Phase the student teacher understands the various skills and its components. He also understands how these components are going to bring about the required changes in the teaching behaviour. The knowledge of the rationale behind the skill and its role in the classroom plays an important role. Reading relevant literature, observing the class-demonstration of fellow student teachers, analysing the use of components in the unit, helps in the knowledge acquisition phase.

In the skill Acquisition Phase the selects a unit and plans it according to the components of the skill. He then demonstrates the unit and gets a feedback and then he re-plans the same unit and re-teaches it till he acquires the level of mastery.

In the transfer phase the skills with their components after mastering, are integrated and transferred to real classroom situation teaching. This transition takes place easily and the skills practiced during the microteaching sessions are transferred smoothly to regular teaching.

 

STEPS INVOLVED IN MICROTEACHING:

In view of these phases a standard procedure of micro-teaching conducted in a teacher training course may involve the following steps.

·                Orientation: in Orientation, the pupil teachers are given necessary theoretical background about micro-teaching by having a free and fair discussion of aspects like those given below:

i)               Concept of micro-teaching

ii)             Significance of micro-teaching

iii)           Requirements and setting for adopting micro-teaching technique.

·                Discussion of teaching skills: under this step the understanding about the following aspects is to be developed.

i)               Analysis of teaching into component teaching skills.

ii)             Role of these skills in teaching.

iii)           Discussion about the component teaching behaviours comprising various teaching skills.

·                Defining the particular skill: A particular skill is defined to student teachers in terms of specific teaching in terms of specific teaching behaviours and the objectives which such behaviours aim at achieving.

·                Presentation of a model demonstration lesson: the teacher educator can be given a demonstration lesson where the particular skill is employed. This also termed “modelling” i.e., demonstration of the desired behaviours relating to a skill for imitation by the observers. Videotape or a film based on the use of the specific skill, if available, can also be shown, or the teacher educator can at least present a prepared ‘episode’ so as to serve as a model for the trainees.

·                Observation of the model lesson:  In a demonstration given by pupil teachers are expected to note down their observations. An observation schedule especially designed for the observation of the specific skill is distributed among the trainees and they are also trained i its use beforehand.

·                Preparation of micro lesson plain: the pupil teacher then prepares a lesson plan based on the pre-decided model on a suitable topic relating to the particular skills which he proposes to practice. More than the subject matter, the technique of maximising the use of the behavioural components involved in that skill is considered important in micro-teaching. This called the plan session.

·                Creation of micro-teaching setting: under this step, consideration is made for creating proper conditions for the practice of teaching skill. In the  Indian model of micro-teaching developed setting for a micro class is as below:

a)              Number of pupils:5-10

b)             Type of pupils: Real pupils or preferably peers.

c)              Type of supervisor: teacher educators and peers.

d)             Time duration of a micro lesson: 6 minutes.

e)              Time duration of a micro teaching cycle: 36 minutes this duration is divided as under:

·                Practice of the skill: the pupil teacher teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils, preferably of peer group in a simulated condition. It is supervised by the teacher-educator and peers both with the help of appropriate observation schedule. The lesson may be videotaped if facilities exist.

·                Feedback: for the purpose of giving feedback to the pupil teacher, either video recording is done or his classmates note down the critical comments on observation schedule on the bases of their observation. These critical comments are analysed after the teaching is over and feedback or suggestions are given to pupil teachers on the basis of these points.

·                Re-plan session: in the light of the feedback and supervisors comments the student teacher re-plans or restructures the same lesson or a different lesson in order to use the skill more effectively.

·                Re-teach session: the revised lesson is retaught to a different but comparable group of pupils.

·                Re-feedback session: on the basis of the performance in the retaught micro-lesson, the student teacher is provided re-feedback in the way outlined earlier.

·                Repetition of the cycle: the Plan; teach, feedback, re-plan, reteach and re-feedback sessions well constitute a single micro-teaching cycle. This cycle may be repeated till adequate level of skill acquisition takes place.

·                Integration of teaching skills: this last step is concerned with that task of integrating various teaching skills individually mastered by pupil teacher. This helps in bridging a gap between training in isolated teaching skills and the real teaching skills and the real teaching situation faced by a pupil-teacher.

Advantages of Micro-Teaching:

1.              The global concept of teaching is replaced by the analytical concept in micro-teaching approach. Here complex task is looked upon as a set of simpler skills comprising specific classroom behaviours. This helps in the proper understanding of the meaning and concept of the term teaching.

2.              There is no problem of discipline in microteaching due to controlled atmosphere and small size of the class.

3.              Pupil teacher gets feedback immediately after the teaching is over.

4.              Micro-teaching helps in systematic and objective observation by providing specific observation schedule.

5.              Micro-teaching works as a laboratory exercise to focus training on the acquisition of teaching skills and instructional techniques. Here a trainee can experiment with several alternatives in limited time and resources.

6.              This is a successful method for individualised training and thus, individual weakness of teachers can be found out.

7.              Micro-teaching provides economy in mastering the teaching skills. It saves the theme and energy of the pupil teacher and as well as the pupils.

8.              This type of teaching can also be used for research purposes and new teaching strategies and techniques can be developed. 

List of various teaching skills:

Attempts have been made to list teaching skills. Allen and Ryan listed the following teaching

Skills at the Stanford University of the U.S.A.

 1. Stimulus Variation                                   2.  Set induction

 3.  Closure                                                  4.  Teacher silence and non-verbal cues

5.  Reinforcing pupil participation            6.  Fluency in questioning

7.  Probing questioning                             8.  Use of higher questions

9.  Divergent questions                             10. Recognizing and attending behavior.

11.  Illustrating and use of examples      12. Lecturing

13.  Planned repetition                            14. Completeness of communication       

B.K. Passi has given the following list of Teaching Skills in his book “Becoming Better

Teacher; Micro-teaching Approach”.

1. Writing instructional objectives           2. Introducing a lesson
3. Fluency in questioning                         4. Probing questioning
5. Explaining                                            6. Illustrating with examples
7. Stimulus variation                                8. Silence and non-verbal cues
9. Reinforcement                                     10. Increasing pupil participation
11. Using black board                             12. Achieving Closure
13. Recognizing attending behaviour

 

      NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) in its publication Core Teaching Skills (1982) has laid stress on the following teaching skills:

• writing instructional objectives              • Organizing the content
• Creating set for introducing the lesson  • introducing a lesson
• Structuring classroom questions            • Question delivery and its distribution
• Response management                           • explaining
• illustrating with examples                      • Using teaching aid
• Stimulus variation                                  • Pacing of the lesson
• Promoting pupil participation                • Use of blackboard
• Achieving closure of the lesson             • Giving assignments
• Evaluating the pupil’s progress             • Diagnosing pupil learning difficulties and taking                • Management of the class                          remedial measures

Core Teaching Skills:

It is not possible to train all the pupil teachers in all these skills in any training programme because of the constraints of time and funds. Therefore a set of teaching skills which cuts across the subject areas have been identified. They have been found very useful for every teacher. The set of these skills are known as core teaching skills.

 1. Skill of Probing Questions                        2. Skill of Explaining
3. Skill of Illustrating With Examples             4. Skill of Stimulus Variation                      
5. Skill of Reinforcement                              6. Skill of Classroom Management
7. Skill of Using Blackboard                        8. Skill of Introducing a lesson

Conclusion:

       It is obvious that this method is meant for the development of teaching skills in teachers. Various presentations and examples are also presented here to understand the process of skill development through the microteaching approach.

       It is therefore, clear that microteaching is to reduce the complexities that exist in larger classroom situations and also to give adequate practice teaching to students at shorter duration and also to identify the deficiencies of trainees to give immediate feedback and help them to modify their behaviour and to demonstrate the same in re-teaching a class in another micro-situation.

 

 

 

SIMULATED TEACHING:

            Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be developed; this model represents the key characteristics or behaviors/functions of the selected physical or abstract system or process. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time. Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, testing,training, education, and video games. Often, computer experiments are used to study simulation models. Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be accessible, or it may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being designed but not yet built, or it may simply not exist.

            Simulation may be defined as “a representation of a real-life situation which attempts to duplicate selected components of the situation along with their inter-relationships in such a way that it can be manipulated by the user”. Simulation generally involves interaction between different individuals in various roles. In the broader sense, it refers to the dynamic execution or manipulation of a model of some object system. Generally speaking, it involves a setting in which the learners are assigned specified roles. It always involves a simulated environment within which each participant acts; sometimes this environment consists wholly of the participants and the rules of the game, and sometimes it is incorporated in a computer or othe electronic device, or in written materials.

         Simulated teaching is a training technique like microteaching. It is employed for bringing about modifications in the behaviour of the pupil teacher. This technique is also used to change the behaviour of trainees in industry, military services and other technical fields. In education, it is used before the actual practice teaching. The development of such a system is attributed to Cruick Shank (1968) as a type of teacher training system. In this technique the pupil teacher tries to develop an important skill of communication in a simulated teaching situation by identifying it with the actual classroom environment. He identifies himself with a particular role and tries to play it successfully. It is a role playing teaching. One pupil teaches in the class a particular topics and his other colleagues play the role of pupils. The teaching takes place for a period of 10 to 15 minutes. After the teaching is over, a discussion on teaching strategies and techniques is organized. After this discussion another pupil comes to the black board for teaching and the cycle is repeated again. The feedback that a pupil teacher receives from his discussion another pupil comes to the black board for teaching and the cycle is repeated again. The feedback that a pupil teacher receives from his behavior helps him to modify his behavior. The learning from this artificial teaching situation is applied in the actual classroom situation during practice teaching.

ASSUMPTIONS OF SIMULATED TECHNIQUE 

           The simulated technique is based on certain principles which are given below:

a)               The underlying skills of teaching can be described, modified and practiced.

b)             Immediate feedback helps for further improvement of communication skills.

c)              Different patterns of teacher behaviors are highlighted because of role perception and role play. That helps the teacher under training to identify the ones that they need most.

STEPS IN SIMULATION TECHNIQUES:

              Ned Flanders has recommended the following six steps which are usually followed in simulated training technique:

Step I: Assignment of roles:

            The pupil teachers are assigned the role of teachers, students and observers respectively. Every pupil teacher has to play all the three roles one after another. It is done on rotation basis.

 

Step II Discussion on social skills of teaching to be practiced:

           The second step involves group discussion on the social skills of teaching to be practiced by each of the student- teachers for the topic chosen by him.

Step III: Preparation of work schedule:

              In order to run the programme of practice successfully the details of the work schedule are prepared. Following decisions are taken at these steps:

1.              Which pupil teacher will initiate the teaching.

2.              When it well summed up.

3.              Who will initiate the discussion after the teaching is over.

4.              How many teachers well teaching the stipulated time.

  Step IV: Determining the technique of observation:

            This step involves the determination of the technique of observation to be adopted. It includes deciding the data to be observed and how it is to be recorded the procedure for the interpretation of the data is also decided through discussion at this stage.

Step V: Organization of the first practice session:

               The first practice lesson is started and its observations are recorded for judging the teaching behavior.  This is followed by discussion leading to feedback and suggestion for the improvement of the lesson.   

Step VI: Alteration of procedure:

              After the first session is over, necessary changes in the procedure can be made, e.g., topic of teaching required teaching behavior, observers and the teaching skills etc can be changed. Every student- teacher is given opportunity to play the roles of a teacher, a pupil and observe.

Simulation Games or Gaming Simulation:

          A simulation game is the wedding of a game and a situation; the game players act within and upon the simulation and receive feedback from it which affects the game activity. Simulation games consist of three elements, namely, 1) a set of roles; 2) a scenario; and 3) an accounting system.

Types of Simulations and Games:

          A game may be defined as “a formalized activity consisting of two or more participants who attempt to meet their objectives within the limitations imposed by set of rules, which determine the game activities and their termination.” Though the games much broader than simulation, the essential characteristics of a game are, to some extent, similar to the characteristics of a simulation. Some important types of simulation are;

·                All-Machine Simulation.

·                Man-Machine Simulation &,

·                All-Man Simulation.

 

1.              All-Machine Simulation: Simulations can be completely computerized. In this case, the parameters that define the referent system are completely contained in the computer programme. This type of simulation, although it has some value for learning, does not lend itself to classroom settings, but is more often used in research by planners and theoreticians.

2.              Man-Machine Simulation: In some simulations, individuals interact with a computerized system by making decisions that affect the functioning of the system. Thus, the individual becomes a part of the simulated system by playing the role of a system participant. An example of Man-Machine Simulation is Sierra Leone, an exercise in which students, playing the role of economic advisors, make decisions that influence the economy of a developing country. Their decisions are transmitted to the computer, which calculates a status report and requests another decision, and so on.

3.              All-Man Simulation: In All-Man Simulations, the parameters of the referent system are embedded in a set of specifications or rules which define the roles and resources of the participants. These specifications are devised to reflect the restraints inherent in the referent system so that simulation participants may experience some of the same kinds of pressures and influences which would occur in a real-life setting. All-Man simulations are the type most frequently used in used in class-room settings.

Uses of Simulations and Games:

          Simulation and games may be utilized in a variety of learning situations. The major advantages, which may be realized by employing the technique of simulation and games in teaching learning process, are:

1.              The technique enables one to break the communication barrier associated with the traditional student-teacher relationship. The use of simulation/games offers a viable alternative. Simulation/games in a classroom setting may also increase interaction among the learners themselves.

2.              Gaming Simulation provides an active, verbal, and at times a physical learning environment. For those who learn better in a face-to-face interactive situation than through reading and lectures, the gaming simulation may be the appropriate methodology. Sometimes educational programmes become unproductive simply because the use of the same methodology becomes boring. A gaming simulation can provide an alternative format for considering material.

3.              The classroom teacher, who administers the simulation game, may considerably affect the learning, attitude change, and enjoyment of students.

4.              Simulation and games helps in increasing the motivation of the learners. Learners often want to explore more issues and seek new information relative to the experience they have been through.

5.              Simulation and games help in developing problem analysis and decision- making skills. Games provide practical, experiential learning.

6.              Simulation and games present students and teachers with novel situations which cannot be solved by “cook book” knowledge or conventional wisdom. Consequently, a level of freshness and novelty is generally maintained.

In using the technique of simulations and games, the teacher plays an important role. He is not primarily a supplier of theoretical information and a judge of his pupils’ competencies, but a coach or a director of a complex learning environment. Learning takes place not so much by interactions with the teacher as by interaction with the medium itself. Reinforcement comes directly from the medium or from peers, who themselves are a part of educational context.

 

ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATED TRAINING

            Main advantages of this teaching technique are given below:

1.              Theoretical knowledge of education can be given practical shape through this technique.

2.              It provides an opportunity to study and analyze critically different teaching behaviour and problems.

3.              The pupil teachers recognize their own progress by various feedback methods.

4.               They develop insight into the actual classroom behavioural problems and remedial procedures.

5.              It is useful for all types of learners gifted as well as slow learners. The gifted can reach greater heights and the slow learners are able to learn that much with which they can pull on.

6.              Different types of role played by pupil teachers make them diverse, creative and energetic.

7.              This helps to build the self-confidence in the pupil- teachers who are new to the teaching learning process.

8.              It provides them the reinforcement to develop various teaching skills.

Limitations of Simulated Training:

             The simulated teaching suffers from a few limitations which are enlisted below:

1.              This technique cannot be used for teaching all the topics of all the subjects.

2.              While teaching art and painting it can’t be used. The observer who is doing the role play, may make incorrect recording.

3.              It is a sort of play. When it is used, seriousness of learning is rather reduced.

4.              It is be difficult for the beginners to practice some of the teaching skills e.g., Questioning.

CONCLUSION:

     Simulated teaching is an innovative approach because students engage in genuine communication in playing their roles. Active involvement stems from participation in worthwhile, absorbing interaction which tends to make students forget they are learning. Students have the opportunity to try out new behaviorus in a safe environment, which helps them develop long term motivation to master the skills. In addition to encouraging genuine communication, active involvement, and a positive attitude, the simulated "real life" problems help students to develop their critical thinking and problem solving skills. If the role playing/simulation technique is employed, it should be integrated with other learning activities, given the preparation and care which is required in any learning, and adapted to student needs and level. If these guidelines are followed, it can be a rewarding experience for both the students and the teacher.

 

Programmed Learning

ORIGIN OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING:

Programmed Learning is the gift of Educational Psychology to the modern world for programming the instructional process to cater the individual differences and making the process of learning more effective. The origin of programmed learning is not essentially new. Socrates may be regarded as one of the earliest programmers who developed a programme in geometry. It was recorded by Plato in the dialogue, MENO. Socrates used to guide his followers to knowledge by conducting them conversationally along a path from fact to fact and insight to insight. The method of programed learning or programed instruction as it is often called today emerged in the efforts of American Psychologists during the second decade of the present century. E.L. Thorndike (1874- 1949) was the first psychologist whose findings bear direct relevance to programming. Programmed learning is directly related to the ‘Law of Effect’ as explained by the Thorndike. Sidney L. Pressey, a psychologist of Ohio State University, is credited for developing in the middle 1920’s practical machines which could teach as well test. The teaching machines as developed by Pressey present a series of questions to a student and inform him immediately whether his response is right and wrong. In 1943, Skinner and his two other collogues started programming by teaching a pigeon to roll a small bowling ball by Operant Conditioning. By 1954, Skinner and James G. Holland devised the auto- instructional methods which have served the present generation as the basis for present work in programmed instruction. According to him the purpose of programmed learning is to manage human learning under controlled conditions.

Meaning and Definitions

          Programmed learning represents the one of the highly individualized and lsystematic instructional strategy in classroom instruction as well as self-learning. It is the method of giving individualized instruction in which the student is active and proceeds at his own pace and is provided with immediate knowledge of results. It is a process where the material to be learnt is broken into small steps, questions are asked at each step soon after the written narrative to which the learner has to respond, his response is verified and reinforced if it is correct or it is corrected if wrong and thus the whole unit is mastered at his own rate of learning. As a highly individualized and systematic instructional strategy, it has been found quite useful. It is now considered as one of the most important innovations in the field of education. It will be imperative to mention some noteworthy definitions as given by great educationists and psychologists.

v   Harold W. Bernard,“Programmed learning refers to the arrangement of instructional material in progressive sequences”.

v   L. William, “Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material to be learned in a series of small steps which are designed to lead a student through self-instruction from what he knows to the unknown of new and more complex knowledge and principles”.

v   Smith and Moore,“Programmed learning is the process of arranging the material to be learned into series of sequential steps. Usually it moves the student from a familiar background into a complex and net set of concepts, principles and understandings”.

v   Gulati and Gulati: Programmed learning is popularly a method of giving individual instruction in which the student is active and proceeds at his own pace and is provided with immediate knowledge of results.

v   Susan Markle, “Programmed learning is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on behaviour of each and every acceptable student”.

In the light of above definitions it can be concluded that programmed learning is a Method of individualized instruction in which the student receives information relating to his own needs and progressive sequences but in small units. In a sense programmed learning is a method which makes effective use of programmed books, language laboratory, teaching machines, films, radio, television, tape-recorder and a teacher.

Characteristics of Programmed Learning:

Ø   Individualized Instruction: programmed learning is the method of receiving individualized instructions from a variety of sources like programmed text books, teaching machine, computers with or without the help of teacher. Information is presented according to individual needs. It maximizes the rate of and depth of learning. It motivates the student and fosters understanding.

Ø   Logical Sequence of Material: The subject-matter of programmed learning is presented into logical sequence of small steps. By producing in small steps, the possibility of committing error is eliminated.

Ø   Interaction between the Learner and the Programme:In programmed learning interaction between the learner and the program is emphasized. Thus programmed learning requires that the learner should be active.

Ø   Immediate Knowledge of Results:programmed learning provides immediate knowledge of results. At each step the student is informed of how well he is doing. He immediately knows whether his answer to a question is right or wrong.

Ø   Organized Nature of Knowledge: Programmed learning emphasized the organized nature of knowledge because it requires the continuity between the easier concepts and the difficult ones.

Ø   Learners Own Speed:In programmed learning situation the learner moves at his own speed. Thus, learning takes place at individual rather than general rates.

Ø   Constant Evaluation: In a programmed material constant evaluation is possible by the record of student’s responses. It is possible to improve the quality of programmed materials through checking the number of errors at each step. Thus, student’s progress may be evaluated by looking into the various types of responses produced by the learner.

 

Principles of Programmed Learning:

The fundamental principles of programmed learning are;

·                Principle of Small Steps: This principle is based on the basic assumption that one learns better if the content matter is presented to him in suitable small steps. Therefore, according to this principle, a programmer while preparing a programme should try to arrange the subject matter into properly sequenced meaningful segments of information called frames. These segments should be presented one at a time before the learner for responding.

·                Principle of Active Responding: This principle is based on the assumption that a learner learns better by being active. The student learns better and faster when they are actively participating in the teaching learning process. The teaching learning process should be such active that the learner should not feel difficulty in moving from one frame to another and remain busy and active by responding to the frames.

·                Principle of Immediate Reinforcement: The student learns best if his answer is confirmed immediately. Immediate confirmation serves as a kind of motivation or reinforcement.

·                Principle of Self Pacing: In programmed learning each student can proceed at his own rate (pace). Some students naturally learn more rapidly or more slowly than others. The student can learn very effectively if he learns at his own pace. The principle is based on individual differences in the process of teaching and learning.

·                Principle of Evaluation: Constant evaluation is another fundamental principle of programmed learning. It helps student to learn and grasp the material given in each frame. The purpose of this arrangement is not to test the student but to improve the quality of programmed materials through checking the number of errors at each step.

Steps in Programming

Ø   Topic Selection:The programmer should select the most familiartopic; otherwise he has to take the help of a subject expert. He may confine himself to selecting a specified content or a small area of the subject matter.

Ø   Content Outlines:After topic selection, its outlines may be prepared which should cover all the materials one plans to teach. For this the programmer has to refer to and examine relevant books and materials.

Ø   Instructional Objectives: The instructional objectives must be formulated which involves both test descriptions and task analysis. The former is the description of terminal behaviour which the learner is expected to achieve and the latter is the series of component behaviour that he is required to acquire in the process of achieving terminal behaviour. The instructional objectives should be written in behavioural outcomes.

Ø   Entry Skill: The learner should have some prerequisite ability and skill to understand properly the new programme. This background experience is called the entry skill and a suitable programme cannot be prepared without proper assessment of the entry skill. To prepare a programme adequately target oriented entry skill data should be utilised at this stage.

Ø   Presentation of the Materials: Suitable format is to be decided for presenting the material from the educational point of view. Then the programmed material should be presented in a sequence of frames arranged as steps towards terminal behaviour.

Ø   Student Participation: On analysis of the terminal behaviour one will find the critical responses of the students. Of course, it is related to some part of the subject matter. The overt responses facilitates student learning. Students’ participation is facilitated by presenting the programme in an interesting format.

Ø   Terminal Behaviour Test: The effect of programme can be ascertained by administering the terminal behaviour test, also known as performance assessment. This provides feedback to the programme and shows the effectiveness of the instructional materials. It may also serve as an entry skill data for the next programme on a related topic of higher levels.

Ø   Revision: Lastly, the programme may be reviewed on the basis of feedback. The instructional materials may be edited and modified according to the needs and requirements of the target audience.

TYPES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING:

In programmed learning the presentation of the instructional material to the learner in a suitable form is called programing. Modes of preparation of programmes are called styles or types of programming. Various types of programming have emerged on account of researches in the field of programmed learning. Linear programming, Branching programming, and Mathetics Programming are the most important styles of programming.

THE LINEAR PROGRAMMING

          The credit of propagating the linear programming style goes to B.F. Skinner. It is directly related with the theory of “Operant Conditioning”. It is based on the assumptions that human behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually, step by step, with the suitable reinforcement for each desired response. Hence, in linear programming, the instructional material is sequenced into a number of meaningful small steps, called frames. These frames are presented to the learner in the arranged sequence, one at a time. The learner is required to respond actively at each step. Immediately, after responding, the learner is given information about the correctness of his response. It reinforces his behaviour and he is motivated to learn the next frame in the arranged sequence. By proceeding from one step to another, the learner may thus be able to acquire the desired learning experience.

The sequence of frames and the path of learning in the programmed learning are systematic and linear. That is why it is called Linear Programming. Here all the learners have to proceed through the same frames in the same order. The whole instructional procedure is well controlled. As it is controlled by the programmer, the linear programming is also called extrinsic programming. The linear programming lays great stress on making sequence of responses errorless. For this purpose, the steps are made so small and they are sequenced in such a way that the learner makes only correct responses throughout the instruction process and receives in consequence, only positive reinforcement. In case, the learner does not respond correctly to a particular frame, he may be required either to repeat the frame or may be acquainted with the correct response. In any case he is not allowed to move to the next frame unless he responds correctly to the present frame.

Dynamics of linear programming:

The mechanism of the linear programme is that the learner is presented with information through logically structured small steps (known as frames) and called upon to answer a question. As soon as he responds, he is shown the correct answer to confirm his response. This confirmation serves the same reinforcing function for humans as a food pellet serves for a rat. The following is an example of a linear programme which demonstrates the arrangement of the different types of frames incorporated into it.   

 

 

 

                     

Fig. 1(Linear Style of programming)

EXAMPLE OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING:

          Let us take an example of angles and their types.

i)               A straight line is represented by the sign”____”, while an angle is ------ by “>”. (Response: represented.).

ii)             Angles are of various types. Acute angle is one of the various types of angles, another type is right --------. (Response: Angle).

iii)           The angles having values greater then 90o, but less than angle of 130o is an ------ angle. (Response: Obtuse).

iv)           The angle having value of 180o is called---- angle (Response: Straight).

v)             The angle of 120o is called as--- angle, while the angle of 30o is termed as ------ angle. (Response: (i) Obtuse, (ii) Acute).

Advantages: 

Ø   Linear arrangement: Every learner starts with his initial behaviour and proceeds towards terminal behaviour through the linear arrangement of fixed instructional sequence of fames.

Ø   Small steps: In a linear programme, the subject matter is presented in small units (frames) of one word to as many as 40-50 words in length to facilitate the grasp of students.

Ø   Responses are controlled:  In a linear programme, the responses and their order are fixed by extrinsic factors; hence, it is called extrinsic programme.

Ø   Responses are structured: Students have to construct their responses. They are required to fill in a missing word, to phrase, to answer a question and to solve a problem.

Ø   Active responding: Since the linear programme demands the active participation of students, they are likely to give an active response (Overt or covert).

Ø   Immediate feedback: As soon as the learner makes as response, he is provided with immediate feedback by being shown the correct response.

Ø   Self-pacing:  The linear completes the programme at his own speed and is not forced to complete it with his classmate.

Ø   Prompting: Prompting is an additional stimulus which minimises errors and helps the learner to give the correct response. In the beginning, responses are heavily prompted; these are gradually withdrawn to let the student make a response of his own.

Ø   Error-rate: In a linear programme, errors are reduced to the minimum. Hence, error rate should not be more than 5 per cent.

Ø   It may be used from the first grade because of its simple mechanism.

Ø   The learner can skip a certain number of frames in a linear programme provided that he responds correctly to the test item given at a particular frame. Such a programme is known as a skip-linear   programme.

Disadvantages:

v   Learning in the linear programme becomes unchallenging, dull and uninspiring because of its linearity. It is an insult to the intellect of a bright student (Crowder, 1958).

v   It may be applied to teach those subjects which can be properly sequenced such as science, mathematics and vocabulary.

v   In a linear programme, there is no scope for flexibility, creative thinking and for the development of the judgemental abilities of students.

BRANCHING OR INTRINSIC PROGRAMMING:

The branching programming is essentially stimulus centred and was originated by Norman A. Crowder. For Crowder the essential problem was that of controlling a communication process by the use of feedback. Student’s responses control the whole communication process and determine whether the communication process has been effective; at the same time, they allow appropriate corrective action to be taken when the communication has been ineffective. (Crowder, 1958) the underlying principle of branching is that different students need different instructional materials, and learning occurs by the commission of errors. It is called “Crowderian programming”, and because it adapts to the need of students without the medium of such an extrinsic device as the computer, it is also called “intrinsic programming.”

The rationale of a branching programme is that the basic learning   takes place during the students, exposure to new material and by the commission of errors. Crowder believes that teaching is communication; and his technique of communication is unique in its structure and application.

He also believes that there is a crucial difference between symbol handling and the capacity of animals and of human beings. A pigeon may, with some pains, be taught to discriminate between one arbitrary symbol and another; but one cannot say directly to the pigeon: “if you peck at this triangle, we shall give you a food pellet.” But we can say many more complex things to human beings with high expectations of getting the task successfully performed by human students. The process of symbolic communication is fraught with the possibility of errors. In a branching programme, errors are first detected and then corrected because it is impractical and undesirable to attempt to eliminate them.

Dynamics of Branching Programme    

The identifying feature of a branching programme is its uniqueness in presenting the subject matter to the learner. The frame-size and the amount of information given is much larger than that of a linear programme, and is followed by multiple-choice answers, only one of which is correct. The learner controls, by the adequacy of his grasp of the material, the exact sequence that he will take from among the available branches in the programme. If he chooses the correct answer, he is told that his answer is correct; and he is then presented with new information. If his answer is incorrect, he is told why it is wrong; and he either returns to the main stem to re-read the information or is routed along a remedial sequence. Branching programmes may be produced for use on a teaching machine or in book form. The book form is known as the scrambled text book.

Basic Assumptions:

The basic assumptions underlying branching programming are as below.

·                The learner learns a thing better if it is presented in its totality or on the form of meaningful components.

·                Learning takes place better, if the students are made to learn on the pattern of traditional tutorial methods.

·                The basic learning takes place during the students’ exposure to the new material.

·                Wrong responses do not necessarily hinder the learning of a correct response. In a learning process errors may occur. If an error occurs, it may be detected and correct before proceeding further on the learning path.

·                Learning takes place better if a learner is allowed sufficient freedom to take decisions for adopting the instructions to his needs.

·                Learning takes place better if each response is used to test the success of the latest communication to the student and the testing is followed by remedial instructions.

·                Multiple choice items help more in the learning process than the forced choice single response items.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                                                                                             

                                                                                                                                                         

 

 

 

Fig. 2(Branching style of programme)

 

Techniques of Branching programming:

There are two techniques in which Branch programme can be arranged. They are called Backward Branching and Forward Branching.

Backward Branching: in this technique the learners goes from first frame to second frame only if he makes correct response. If he makes an error, he is led to a remedial frame where he is given some more help in understanding the concept and in solving the solution by a better logic. He will then be directed to the original frame one. He reads again, answers correctly in the light of the remedial material received earlier. So the learner goes through the same frame twice, once before the remedial material and secondly after the remedial material.

 

                                                                                           

 

 

                                                                                                                                                         

 

 

 

 

Fig.3 (Backward Branching)

 

Forward Branching: in this type, whether the learner is making correct response or wrong response, he will always be going to new pages progressing from page to page. When he makes a wrong choice, he is directed to a remedial frame where his mistakes are fully explained, probably followed by another parallel question, from which he goes to the next frame in the main stream. Diagrammatically, it can be represented as follows:

 

 

 

                                                                                           

 

 

                                                                                                                                                         

                                                                                                                  

 

 

Fig.4(Forward Branching)

 

 Advantages:

i.        A branching programme deviates from the straight line and consists of more information in each frame. A frame may consist of 2-3 paragraphs and sometimes a full page.

ii.      “A branching programme is particularly suitable for dealing with material that involves complex problem solving strategies…At the same time, the technique can, with advantage, be employed for groups of students amongst whom there is a wide range of individual differences, since the material automatically adapts to different learners’ needs.” (Ivor k. Davis, 1972)

iii.    The detection and correction of errors is emphasized. It allows 20 per cent errors, assuming that learners learn more by committing errors.

iv.    Branching programming has been found to be more challenging and interesting to the student.

v.      A distinctive feature of  the branching programme is that the subject matter is directly and continuously controlled by the learners’ performance in answering the questions put to him

Disadvantages:

             i.            It does not eliminate the possibility of guessing. Students may guess the correct answer without understanding the information in the frame.

           ii.            Since the branching programme is very costly in comparison to the traditional teaching approaches, its practicability is doubted.

         iii.            It can be used only after standard VI because the children are unable to understand its mechanism in the earlier standards.

MATHETICS PROGRAMMING

Linear or branching programmes are the conventional models in programming. Mathetics is the newest and most controversial approach to programed instructions. Mathetics come from the Greek root word ‘Methein’ which means ‘to learn’. Mathatics (Gilbert, 1962) is nothing more than a highly formulized application of existing scientific principles taken laterally from the science of animal behaviour. It is based upon the systematic application of the reinforcement theory to the analysis and reconstruction of the complex behaviour repertoire usually known as subject matter mastery and skills. The basic percept’s of Mathetics were formulated originally by Thomas F. Gilbert in his article Mathetics: Technology of Reduction (Journal of Mathetics, Vol.1, NO.1, 1962). The basic idea of Mathatics is to start with the most motivating task which is likely to the last operation which completes the process. The presentation is through simulators. Gilbert, like Mager, has suggested that the programmer ought to allow the students to define an optimum route for him to take. Obviously, such an optimum route involves forcing the student to take as large a step as he can manage leading to the large frame. Hence, in Mathetics, the frame size is quite big.

Steps of Mathatics Programming:

          The basic steps in writing a Mathatical programme are:

·                Data collection: At this stage, the programmer defines the terminal behaviour and analysis the task or topic. The task analysis includes topic analysis, job analysis and skill analysis.

·                Prescription of Mastery: The basic unit of prescription is the operant, consisting of a single act of behaviour (R), together with its associated stimulus condition (S).

·                Characterization: The programme involves the three types of exercises; every response is first demonstrated to the student; it is then prompted; and, finally, every response is released, so that the student performs the behaviour entirely on his own. 

·                Exercise writing: frame–writing make an extensive use of illustrations, tools and soft simulators. A common procedure is to use a three- stage process of demonstration, prompting and release in which directions, instructions, guides and prompts are successively reduced over each group of frames in such a way as to release the student’s mastery behaviour.

Thus, in Mathetics, retrogressive chaining is used which makes it unique among all the other programming techniques. The rationale for the retrogressive chaining technique is that the closer the student is to the reinforcement when he is being taught, the more effective that reinforcement becomes. The reinforcement in Mathtics is the completion of the task. The whole procedure of Mathetics is diagrammatically is represented as:

 

 

 

 

 

                                 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 D-Demonstration                             P-Prompt                               R-Release

 

Advantages:

          Mathetics is both analytic and synthetic in approach. It is somewhat eclectic in nature and unique in its application. It provides not only guide lines but also a notational system to help the programmer in deciding what to teach, which method are strategy to use and a detailed procedure for constructing a programme.

          It is suitable for teaching skills when the transfer of training forms an essential part of instruction. For skills, a high degree of simulation is required and many mathetical programmes are described as kits or simulators. The programme has been successfully used in the area of such psychomotor skills as barbering, welding, brick-laying, electrical appliances repairs, radio-television repairs, etc. it is a step towards developing a new technology.

Disadvantages:

          This style of programming is not much in use because of intricacies involved in its construction. Its effectiveness in   teaching different subjects is also in doubt. It cannot be used to teach the lower classes,  and is very time-consuming and costly.

 

Advantages:

Ø   The student is continually active when he is using a program. In other methods of teaching he is active only sometime and practically nil in a lecture.

Ø   Programmed instruction is basically individual instruction. Every student proceeds at his own pace. In a conventional class, the teacher attends to only children of average abilities with the consequence that the intelligent get bored and the dull have no extra help. But programme instruction helps the dull with extra information where it is needed and no stigma is attached to the making of mistakes. At the same time, it does not hold up the progress of a fast learner as he goes along and completes the task at his own pace of learning.

Ø   Immediate reinforcement helps a child to know whether his   answer is right or wrong. In normal class feedback takes a long time.

Ø   A programme is planned and prepared much more carefully then a teacher would do for conventional teaching programme. Mostly programmes are written by experts in the field.

Ø   Each programme has to prove itself to be effective during the process of validation and must be re-written as many times as is necessary. If proper learning does not take place, it is only due to the fault of the program and not of the learner. This positive attitude is quite distinct from what we normally witness in normal class situation where there is always a tendency to blame the pupil rather than the teacher when there are failures in examination.

Ø   A programme is not a human being and can be used at any time of the day. Programmed materials or teaching machines are never tried and never loss their temper or patience. Hence programmed materials are very useful in the field on non-formal education.

Limitations of Programmed Instruction:-

The following are the limitations of programmed instructions:

1.              The programmed learning does not eliminate competitions or grades as often claimed.

2.              Mere manipulation of machines is not rewarding to children as skinner seems to think. Once the novelty wears off and if, at the start, too many errors appear the pupils loses interest and motivation. Later reinforcement often does not accelerate learning.

3.              Programmed instruction restricts the learner’s freedom of choice resulting in cramping of his imagination and initiative.

4.              Operant conditioning is found successful only with some pupils, in some cases and not in all. Programmed instruction ignores or makes inadequate provisions for variables like cognitive variables, personality variables and motivational variables.

5.              The teacher-pupil contact which is so vital for development of human personality and relationship is completely lost.

6.              In language learning, speech is equally important as development of reading and comprehension skills. But there is no scope for providing this experience.

 

CONCLUSION

          Programmed learning is a revolutionary strategy pertaining to the art and science of the teaching-learning process. It is not only a technique of effective leaning, but also a successful mechanism of feedback device for the modification of teacher-behaviour. It nevertheless provides insight into the problem of teaching effectiveness through improved feedback and reinforcement mechanism. It is a kind of learning experiences in which programme takes the place of a tutor for the student and leads him through a set of behaviour designed and sequenced to make it more probable that he will behave in a given desired way in the future. Programmed instruction is a self-instructional material developed on the psychological principles of teaching learning process. A rapid learner can cover the material quickly and a slow learner may proceed on his own pace. This frees the learners from the same type of teaching materials delivered to the whole class at the same pace. The programmed learning material helps the learner to teach himself at any place and pace according to his convenience. Different types of programmes have their special advantages and facilitate learners’ initiative participation and involvement according to their interests and ability. They provide scientific teaching and learning for efficient and effective acquisition of knowledge and skills. The analytical thinking and self-direction of learners are also promoted through the use of programmed learning materials.